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Democracy  and  Nationalism 
in  Education 

Syllabus  and  Readings  for  a  Course  in  History 

of  Education  from  the  French  Revolution 

to  the  Present  Time 

By  EDWARD  H.  REISNER,  Ph.D. 

Lecturer  in  the  History  and  the  Philosophy  of  Education 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

with  an  Introduction  by 

PAUL  MONROE,  LL.D. 

Director  of  the  School  of  Education,  and  Professor  of  History 
of  Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 


Teachers  College  Syllabi,  No,  g 


\ 


Published  by 

^eacJjetJJ  College.  Columbia  ^niberjdtp 

525  West  1 20th  Street 
New  York  City 


Teachers  College  Syllabi,  No.  g 


tE^eacJiers;  College 
Columljia  ®[nibergitj> 


Democracy  and  Nationalism 
in  Education 

Syllabus  and  Readings  for  a  Course  in  History 

of  Education  from  the  French  Revolution 

to  the  Present  Time 


By  EDWARD  H.  REISNER,  Ph.D. 

Lecturer  in  the  History  and  the  Philosophy  of  Education 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

with  an  Introduction  by 

PAUL  MONROE,  LL.D. 

Director  of  the  School  of  Education,  and  Professor  of  History 
of  Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 


Published  by 

tlTeacjjersf  College,  Columbia  Mnitierjfitp 

525  West  1 20th  Street 
New  York  City 


Copyright,  1919,  by  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 


^ 


INTRODUCTION 

The  growth  of  nations  has  been  the  conspicuous  political  fea- 
ture of  modern  times,  and  the  problems  of  the  relation  of  educa- 
tion to  this  developrnent  have  become  obvious  during  the  nine- 
teenth century. 

The  earliest  stage  of  political  development  occurred  with  the 
fixing  of  tribal  groups  in  a  definite  habitat.  The  earliest  form  of 
this  was  the  city  state  with  its  environing  dependencies.  These 
early  states  looked  upon  all  other  groups  as  hostile  and  unworthy 
of  existence,  except  as  they  became  subordinated.  This  incor- 
poration was  usually  accomplished  by  force,  which  process 
tended  to  destroy  the  distinctive  cultural  features  of  the  minor 
groups.  In  other  words,  the  groups  expanding  by  military  power 
led  by  dynastic  ability  and  ambition  looked  upon  political  organ- 
ization as  all-inclusive.  With  the  Roman  Empire  this  tendency 
became  substantially  a  reality.  With  the  Christianization  of 
the  Roman  Empire  the  ecclesiastical  ideal  and  pretention  paral- 
leled the  political  one  and  both  became  coterminous  with 
civilization.  This  belief  in  the  universal  scope  of  political 
organization  constituted  in  form  the  world's  political  theory 
long  after  the  actual  conditions  were  changed.  The  Holy  Roman 
Empire  which  expressed  this  theory  in  the  early  modern  period 
was  only  destroyed  by  Napoleon  in  1804.  The  chief  force  in 
rendering  this  organization  a  mere  form  was  that  of  growing 
nationalism. 

From  very  early  days  certain  groups,  especially  the  English, 
had  grown  up  in  isolation.  Over  these  the  Holy  Roman  Empire 
had  possessed  only  the  most  nebulous  authority.  From  the 
twelfth  to  the  sixteenth  century  both  the  English  and  the  French 
groups,  and  to  a  less  extent  the  German  and  Italian,  through 
internal  conflict,  developed  a  local  consciousness  which  more 
and  more  gave  a  distinctive  character  to  each  group.  The  orig- 
inal tribal  groups  which  had  entered  into  the  composition  of  these 
dawning  national  groups  were  marked  by  distinct  racial  char- 
acteristics. Through  internal  conflicts,  through  migration,  through 
conquest  and  the  merging  of  conqueror  and  conquered,  in  time 

3 


419368 


these  de^/€^lopmg:  ng^tiotiai  -groups  came  to  represent  the  accom- 
plished anxalgamaaoii  of  many  tribal  or  racial  strains.  In  fact, 
the  strongest  of  these  early  nationalities,  the  English  and  French, 
represented  the  fusion  of  most  diverse  elements. 

Thus  early  became  distinct  the  three  great  factors  determining 
modern  nationalities,  namely,  blood  relationship  or  race,  habitat 
or  geographical  environment,  and  culture.  Culture  in  this  sense 
means  common  ideals,  common  traditions,  habits  and  aspira- 
/  tions.  A  number  of  other  specific  characteristics  are  often  urged 
as  essential  to  nationality,  such  as  common  language,  common 
religion,  common  laws,  but  there  is  no  one  characteristic  except 
that  of  a  common  culture  which  may  be  posited  but  what  excep- 
tions may  be  found.  The  one  most  commonly  given,  that  of 
race,  cannot  be  accepted,  for  every  European  nation  represents  a 
great  mixture,  and  the  United  States  has  become  the  greatest 
mixture  of  all.  Nor,  on  the  other  hand,  can  such  great  admixture 
of  racial  groups  be  made  an  essential,  for  there  are  illustrations 
of  the  opposite  as  in  the  case  of  Japan.  A  compact  habitat  is  a 
usual  characteristic,  but  there  are  exceptions  as  in  the  case  of 
Greece,  now  struggling  for  national  realization,  or  that  of  the 
British  Empire.  It  cannot  be  maintained  that  common  language 
is  an  essential,  for  there  is  the  case  of  Switzerland  with  its  three 
languages.  Common  religion,  for  a  period  believed  to  be  essen- 
tial, was  responsible  for  the  many  wars  of  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries;  but  strong  national  states  have  developed 
in  spite  of  internal  differences  of  religious  belief.  Common  laws 
cannot  be  held  as  essential  for  federal  states  are  based  on  the 
recognition  of  a  diversity  of  laws. 

Modern  history  since  the  fifteenth  century  has  been  essen- 
tially the  story  of  the  struggle  for  national  realization.  This  long 
struggle  has  brought  a  growing  recognition  that  a  common  cul- 
ture, that  composite  of  common  habits,  ideals  and  purposes,  is 
the  one  essential  characteristic  of  nationality.  Most  modern 
wars,  especially  of  Europe,  have  been  caused  by  the  violation  of 
this  principle.  This  was  particularly  true  during  the  nineteenth 
century  because  most  international  settlements,  particularly 
those  made  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1816  and  by  the  Con- 
gress of  Berlin  in  1878,  resulted  in  gross  violations  of  that  prin- 
ciple, in  favor  of  other  principles  usually  based  on  arbitrary  force. 
In  a  very  true  sense,  then,  the  great  war  is  but  a  readjustment  of 

4 


the  evils  produced  by  the  imperfect  and  unjust  settlements  made 
at  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  struggle. 

From  the  late  eighteenth  century  the  element  of  common  cul- 
ture has  become  the  dominating  one  in  the  conception  of  nation- 
ality. This  has  resulted  in  the  recognition  of  two  fundamental 
and  correlated  truths:  First,  common  culture  is  a  trait  which, 
transcends  social,  religious,  and  economic  distinctions,  and  its 
recognition  transfers  the  seat  of  national  existence  from  dynas- 
ties or  bureaucratic  legal  institutions  supported  by  military  force 
to  the  masses  of  the  people.  Second,  the  discovery  was  made 
that  common  culture  was  an  artificial  product  and  could  be 
manufactured.  The  process  of  this  manufacture  is  by  education. 
From  one  point  of  view  then  the  nineteenth  century  is  the  period 
of  national  development,  working  towards  the  democratic  inter- 
pretation of  the  problem  of  nationality  and  using  education  as  a 
means. 

The  first  people  consciously  to  apply  this  method  of  education 
to  the  determination  of  nationality  was  the  German.  Beginning 
near  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  or  even  earlier,  with 
special  groups,  and  after  1809  very  definitely  for  the  whole  group, 
this  people  before  the  Napoleonic  wars  organized  into  more  than 
one  hundred  independent  nations  has  gradually  amalgamated 
into  one.  The  limitation  to  this  development  of  a  German  nation 
as  we  see  it  now  is  that  the  Germans  retained  along  with  this 
democratic  conception  of  nationality  the  old  dynastic  and 
predatory  one.  The  latter  has  now  been  eliminated,  in  part  at 
least,  and  it  remains  to  be  seen  what  the  former  may  accomplish. 

Other  European  nations,  more  favorably  situated  in  regard  to 
other  factors  in  nationality,  or  relying  more  upon  the  older 
interpretations  of  national  strength,  recognized  more  tardily  the 
importance  of  education  as  a  means  of  developing  national  unity 
and  power.  Even  the  United  States  has  depended  more  on 
geographical  environment,  racial  selection,  political  institutions 
and  common  language  than  upon  consciously  developed  cultural 
unity.  While  in  the  early  national  period  the  importance  of 
education  to  the  successful  workings  and  perpetuation  of  free 
institutions  was  commonly  recognized,  yet  a  wholly  individualis- 
tic interpretation  of  education  was  practised. 

Practically  all  modern  nations  are  now  awake  to  the  fact  that 
education  is  the  most  potent  means  in  the  development  of  the 

5 


f 


w 


essentials  of  nationality.  Education  is  the  means  by  which 
peoples  of  retarded  cultures  may  be  brought  rapidly  to  the  com- 
mon level.  Education  is  the  means  by  which  small  or  weak 
nations  may  become  so  strong  through  their  cultural  strength 
and  achievements  that  their  place  in  the  political  world  may  be 
made  secure.  Education  is  the  means  by  which  nations,  strong 
in  the  strength  of  the  past,  may  go  through  the  perilous  transition 
to  the  modern  world,  as  has  Japan  and  as  will  Russia.  Education 
is  the  only  means  by  which  the  world  can  be  "made  safe"  for  the 
national  type  of  organization. 

Thus  the  history  of  nationality  during  the  nineteenth  century 
is  closely  bound  up  with  the  problems  of  education.  And,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  education  of  the  present  may  find  an  interpreta- 
tion of  all  of  its  problems,  whether  of  purpose,  of  subject-matter, 
of  organization,  or  even  of  method  in  terms  of  nationality. 

The  purpose  of  this  course  is  to  trace  the  practice  of  leading 
modern  nations  in  the  use  of  education  as  a  factor  in  developing 
nationality. 

Paul  Monroe 


DEMOCRACY  AND  NATIONALISM  IN  EDUCATION 

Syllabus  and  Readings  for  a  Course  in  History  of 

Education  from  the  French  Revolution 

TO  THE  Present  Time 

By  EDWARD  H.  REISNER,  Ph.D. 

Lecturer  in  the  History  and  the  Philosophy  of  Education,  Teachers  College 

I.  The    French    Revolution:      Its    Educational    Promise 
and  Achievement 

The  French  Revolution  (a)  destroyed  the  old  regime  of  abso- 
lute monarchy  and  class  privilege,  (b)  announced  a  liberal  pro- 
gram of  democracy,  (c)  achieved  much  less  than  universal  democ- 
racy, namely,  middle-class  participation  in  political  life,  and  (d) 
consolidated  national  feeling  in  France  and  brought  out  the 
principle  of  a  citizen  army.  In  the  field  of  education  the  period 
of  the  Revolution  is  responsible  for  setting  forth  the  conception 
of  national  democratic  education  in  such  true  and  liberal  lines 
that  the  nineteenth  century  realized  almost  entirely  the  radical 
prophecies  of  the  late  eighteenth.  Owing  to  the  power  of  his- 
torical forces  and  current  political  and  economic  instability,  the 
educational  achievement  of  the  Revolution  was  much  less  than 
its  promise. 

1.  Political  and  economic  inequality  and  injustice  of  the  pe- 
riod immediately  preceding  the  Revolution. 

References:  Brief  accounts  are  to  be  had  in  the  following:  West,^  Modern 
History,  303-323;  Robinson, ^  History  of  Western  Europe,  537-557;  Robinson 
and  Beard, ^  The  Development  of  Western  Europe,  I,  203-223.  More  extended 
accounts  may  be  found  in  Hayes,^  A  Political  and  Social  History  of  Modern 
Europe,  I,  395-426,  449-461;  Mathews,^  The  French  Revolution,  i-iio;  The 
Cambridge  Modern  History,  VIII,  1-144;  Lowell,  The  Eve  of  the  French 
Revolution. 

2.  The  Estates  General  and  the  National  or  Constitu- 
ent Assembly,  May  5,  1789-September  14,  1791. 

(a)  The  National  Assembly  abolished  the  old  system  of 
absolute  monarchy,  economic  restriction  and  class  privilege  and 

1  All  later  references  to  this  work  are  indicated  only  by  the  name  of  the  author. 

7 


established  a  limited  constitutional  monarchy.  The  right  to 
vote  and  to  hold  office  was  limited  by  financial  considerations, 
thus  securing  the  political  supremacy  of  the  middle  class.  The 
Declaration  of  the  Rights  of  Man,  made  a  part  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, is  a  general  charter  of  democratic  rights. 

References:  Brief  accounts  in  West,  323-336;  Robinson,  561-573; 
Robinson  and  Beard,  I,  224-247.  More  extended  accounts  in  Hayes,  I,  464- 
486;    Mathews,  111-181;    Cambridge  Modern  History ,  VIII,  145-210. 

(&)  The  Constitution  of  1791  declared  for  a  universal  system  of 
education.  In  the  last  days  of  the  National  Assembly,  Talley- 
rand presented  a  bill  providing  for  a  comprehensive  system  of 
public  instruction.  The  bill  may  be  regarded  as  moderate- 
liberal  in  tone  and  reflects  the  political  opinion  of  the  Assembly. 

Sources:  Translation  of  extracts  from  Talleyrand's  Education  Bill  of 
1 791,  Bryson  Library. 

References:  Compayre,  History  of  Pedagogy,  362-378;  Compayre, 
Doctrines  de  V Education  en  France,  II,  250-272;  Simon,  V Instruction  Popu- 
laire  en  France,  3-21. 

3.  The  Legislative  Assembly,  October  i,  1 791 -September 

21,  1792. 

(a)  Owing  to  the  activity  of  the  radical  elements  in  the  elections 
of  1 79 1  to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  the  number  of  radicals 
in  the  legislative  body  was  out  of  all  proportion  to  radical  senti- 
ment in  France  at  large.  The  deliberations  of  the  Assembly  were 
also  greatly  influenced  by  the  activities  of  the  Parisian  mob  and 
this  increased  the  radical  tendencies  of  that  body.  Treason  with- 
in France  and  foreign  aggression  from  without,  with  both  of 
which  Louis  XVI  was  shown  or  was  thought  to  be  connected,  led 
to  his  deposition  and  the  automatic  downfall  of  the  constitution 
of  1791. 

References:  Brief  accounts  in  West,  336-347;  Robinson  and  Beard,  I, 
249-264.  More  extended  accounts  in  Hayes,  I,  486-500;  Mathews,  182-206; 
Cambridge  Modern  History,  VIII,  211-244. 

(&)  During  the  closing  days  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  a  bill 
providing  for  a  national  system  of  education  was  introduced  by 
Condorcet.  It  reflects  the  extreme  republicanism  of  the  Giron- 
dists. While  it  was  hardly  suitable  for  the  France  of  that  day,  it 
constitutes  a  prophecy,  surprisingly  accurate  in  many  of  its 
details,  of  the  provisions  for  universal  education  which  were  to 
become  the  actualities  of  the  late  nineteenth  century.  As  a 
theory  of  democratic  education  it  has  substantial  validity  to-day. 

8 


Sources:  Condorcet,  Rapport  et  Projet  de  Decret  sur  V Organisation  General 
de  V Instruction  Publique,  edited  by  Compayre.  Translated  extracts  from  the 
same,  Bryson  Library. 

References:  Compayre,  History  of  Pedagogy,  379-389;  Compayre, 
Doctrines  de  V Education  en  France,  II,  273-290;  Simon,  U Instruction  Populaire 
en  France,  21-35, 

4.   The  Convention,  September  22,  1792-October  26,  1795. 

(a)  Again  the  radical  temper  of  the  leading  parties  of  the  Con- 
vention failed  to  represent  the  essential  conservatism  of  France. 
The  contest  for  control  between  the  two  radical  parties,  the  Gir- 
ondins  and  the  Mountain,  resulted  in  the  supremacy  of  the  latter. 
It  was  during  the  period  of  Montagnard  control  that  the  Terror 
was  established  as  the  government  of  France.  The  Mountain 
broke  up  into  factions  and  destroyed  itself,  after  which  the  con- 
servative spirit  of  the  majority  of  the  members  of  the  Conven- 
tion asserted  itself.  Reaction  from  the  radicalism  of  the  Terror 
was  rapid  and  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  middle-class 
constitution,  resembling  closely  in  its  suffrage  provisions  that  of 
1791. 

References:  Brief  accounts  in  West,  347-356;  Robinson,  582-591; 
Robinson  and  Beard,  I,  264-282.  More  extended  accounts  in  Hayes,  I, 
500-512;  Mathews,  207-285;  Cambridge  Modern  History,  VIII,  244-275; 
338-397- 

(b)  The  main  educational  interest  of  the  radical  phase  of  the 
Convention  was  in  elementary  schools.  Extreme  opposition  de- 
veloped to  any  forms  of  higher  education  whatsoever.  The  most 
extreme  proposal  made  during  this  period  was  that  of  Lepelletier 
le  Saint-Fargeau  to  establish  a  system  of  education  modeled 
closely  after  that  of  ancient  Sparta.  The  triumph  of  the  conserv- 
ative elements  was  marked  by  a  return  to  comprehensive  systems 
of  education  and  by  the  establishment  of  numerous  important 
special  schools  of  higher  instruction.  The  bill  of  Daunou, 
introduced  October  27,  1795,  neglected  primary  education  and 
favored  the  institutions  that  would  be  of  use  to  the  middle  class. 

Sources:  Translation  of  extracts  from  Daunou's  Law  relating  to  Primary 
Education,  Bryson  Library. 

References:  Compayre,  History  of  Pedagogy,  390-412;  Compayre,  Doc- 
trines de  r Education  en  France,  II,  291-321;  Simon,  L' Instruction  Populaire 
en  France,  35-52;   Drury,  L' Instruction  Publique  et  la  Revolution,  134-143. 


II.  The  First  Empire  in  France  and  Education  as  a  Tool 

OF  the  Government 

Napoleon  was  primarily  interested  in  upper-class  education 
and  did  practically  nothing  to  improve  educational  opportunities 
for  the  common  people.  He  wished  to  see  the  competitive  field 
opened  to  talent.  According  to  the  plan  which  developed  under 
his  guidance,  all  educational  activity  was  to  be  carried  on  under 
the  supervision  and  control  of  the  university,  which  thus  had  a 
true  monopoly  in  education.  The  university  was  a  teaching 
organization  with  a  well-defined  objective,  namely,  the  support  of 
the  Napoleonic  system  and  the  Empire.  The  university  pro- 
duced in  France  of  Napoleon's  time  a  degree  of  centralization  and 
governmental  domination  in  educational  affairs  never  surpassed 
there  or  elsewhere. 

Sources:  Translation  of  extracts  from  the  Napoleonic  Decrees  concerning 
Education,  Bryson  Library. 

References:  Brief  accounts  of  the  Napoleonic  era  are  to  be  found  in 
West,  363-383;  Robinson  and  Beard,  I,  309-342;  Hayes,  I,  523-576.  Neglect 
of  Primary  Education:  Compayre,  History  of  Pedagogy,  513.  The  Monopo- 
listic University:  Compayre,  510-512;  Farrington,  French  Secondary  Edu- 
cation, 66-69;  Aulard,  Napoleon  I  et  le  Monopole  Universitaire;  Liard,  VEn- 
seignement  Superieur  en  France,  II,  65-124;  Kilian,  L' Instruction  Secondaire 
en  France,  85-138. 

III.  The  Regeneration  of  Prussia  and  the  Development 

OF  A  Complete  National  System  of  Education 
I.  By  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit  (1807)  Napoleon  deprived  Prussia 
of  nearly  half  her  territory  and  population  and  laid  heavy 
financial  indemnities  upon  her.  This  humiliation  was  the  in- 
spiration of  efforts  in  every  field  of  life  to  reestablish  Prussia. 
The  ancient  feudal  restrictions  upon  person  were  removed ;  cities 
were  given  a  measure  of  local  autonomy ;  the  army  was  reestab- 
lished on  new  Hnes ;  education  of  the  people  was  fostered ;  higher 
education  was  greatly  improved.  The  War  of  Liberation  (1813- 
18 14)  was  the  expression  of  a  new  national  spirit,  which  carried 
Germany  far  in  educational,  literary,  philosophical,  scientific 
and  economic  progress. 

Sources:  Fichte's  Reden  an  die  Deutsche  Nation;  Fichte,  translation  of 
extracts  from  Addresses  to  the  German  Nation,  Reisner  and  Raynor,  Bryson 
Library. 

References:  Good  general  accounts  are  to  be  had  in  Cambridge  Modern 
History,  IX,  324-336;  Lavisse  et  Rambaud,  Histoire  Generate,  IX,  595-621; 
Hayes,  I,  555-557- 

10 


2.  The  Development  of  a  Universal,  Compulsory, 
State-controlled  System  of  Primary  Education. 

During  the  period  now  under  consideration  the  movements 
of  the  eighteenth  century  in  the  direction  of  a  state-controlled 
and  universal  system  of  primary  schools  in  Prussia  were  greatly 
strengthened,  and  the  primary  system  of  education  was  brought 
to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency.  A  bureau  of  education  was  erected 
in  the  ministry  of  the  interior  in  1807  and  a  separate  department 
for  education  was  created  in  the  ministry  for  religion,  education, 
and  medical  affairs  in  181 7.  By  1825  a  hierarchy  of  educational 
authorities  and  divisions  extending  from  the  communities  to 
the  central  government  had.  been  established,  together  with 
adequate  means  for  school  inspection.  Great  strides  were  taken 
during  this  period  in  the  training  of  teachers  in  seminaries. 
A  rich  and  varied  curriculum  for  the  primary  schools  was  put 
into  effect. 

Sources:  Siivern's  sketch  of  a  General  Education  Law,  translation,  Bryson 
Library;  Cousin,  Public  Instruction  in  Prussia,  translated  by  Austin;  Stowe, 
The  Prussian  System  of  Public  Instruction;  Horace  Mann,  Seventh  Annual 
Report,  19-35;    54-5;   84-142. 

References:  Paulsen,  German  Education,  236-245;  Alexander,  The 
Prussian  Elementary  Schools,  22-39;  Lewin,  Enwicklung  der  Preussischen 
Volkschule,  155-220;  Kandel,  Training  of  Elementary  School  Teachers  in 
Germany,  10-13. 

3.  The  New  Humanism  and  the  Reform  of  the  Gymnasium. 

In  1 810  an  official  state  examination  for  candidates  for  teach- 
ing positions  in  the  secondary  schools  was  made  compulsory. 
In  1 812  the  leaving  examinations  were  reformed,  with  the  effect 
of  standardizing  secondary  education.  The  curriculum  of  the 
Gymnasium  was  modified  according  to  the  spirit  of  the  New 
Humanism,  then  in  the  ascendancy  in  German  intellectual  cir- 
cles. The  new  curriculum  laid  strong  emphasis  upon  Latin, 
Greek,  German,  and  mathematics,  with  considerable  attention 
to  geography,  history,  religion,  and  natural  science. 

References:  Russell,  German  Higher  Schools,  76-101;  Paulsen,  German 
Education,  197-205;  212-213;  Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  Gelehrten  Unterrichts, 
513-670. 

4.  Non-classical  and  Semi-classical  Secondary  Schools. 
Reference:  Paulsen,  German  Education,  212-213. 

II 


IV.  The  Search  for  Methods  of  Teaching  Consistent  with 
THE  Principles  of  Democracy 

1.  Pestalozzi.  Pestalozzi  was  confronted  with  the  problem 
and  inspired  by  the  hope  of  raising  a  subservient,  poverty- 
stricken,  shiftless,  ignorant,  immoral  peasantry  and  working 
class  into  a  folk  morally,  economically  and  intellectually  sound 
and  independent.  He  was  a  pedagogical  theorist,  but  that  only 
in  order  to  be  a  social  reformer.  He  sought  for  a  school  experi- 
ence that  would  make  of  the  pupil  an  intelligent  individual. 
Hence  he  provided  an  expanded  curriculum  and  sought  to  pro- 
vide a  school  regime  that  would  cause  the  materials  of  instruction 
to  become  constituent  forces  of  the  child's  intelligence  and  moral 
character.  Pestalozzi's  influence  is  seen  only  in  contrast  with  the 
lifeless  and  repressive  school  practices  of  his  times.  The  spirit 
of  Pestalozzi  was  in  a  measure  transferred  to  the  Prussian  semina- 
ries and  the  Prussian  system  of  primary  schools,  and  from  them 
to  the  healthy  imitations  that  found  place  in  France,  America, 
and  England. 

References:  The  sociological  interest  of  Pestalozzi  is  best  shown  in  his 
Leonard  and  Gertrude.  It  should  be  read  entire.  The  student  will  probably 
get  a  better  understanding  of  Pestalozzi's  teaching  method  through  secondary 
works  than  through  his  own  writings.  The  following  are  suggested  as  serving 
for  a  brief  study:  Monroe,  Text  Book,  587-622;  Parker,^  History  of  Modern 
Elementary  Education,  273-313;  323-374;  Bachman,  "The  Social  Factor  in 
Pestalozzi's  Theory  of  Education,"  Education,  Vol.  XXII,  402-414.  For  more 
extended  reading,  the  student  is  referred  to  the  bibliographies  contained  in 
Parker. 

2.  The  Fellenberg  Movement  represents  the  continuation 
of  the  more  strictly  sociological  phase  of  Pestalozzi's  work  by 
one  of  his  disciples. 

References:  Parker,  313-321;  Grsives,^  History  of  Education  in  Modern 
Times,  153-163. 

3.  Herb  ART.  Herbart's  main  educational  objective  was  the 
development  of  character.  Fundamental  to  his  principles  of 
method  is  his  psychology,  which  seeks  to  exhibit  the  specific 
connection  between  ideas  and  conduct.  His  psychology  repre- 
sents an  attempt  to  break  away  from  the  current  faculty  psychol- 
ogy; and,  while  it  in  turn  has  been  superseded  by  a  functional 
description  of  mental  processes,  it  is  sufficiently  true  to  experi- 
ence so  that  the  Herbartian  analysis  of  the  learning  process  can 

«  All  later  references  to  this  work  are  indicated  only  by  the  name  of  the  author. 

12 


be  carried  over  with  little  loss  to  that  analysis  which  rests  upon 
a  more  valid  psychology.  Herbart  attempts  to  describe  the 
method  of  developing  a  man  who  will  make  sound  moral  judg- 
ments out  of  the  rich  stores  of  a  well-filled  mind,  and  who  will 
carry  those  judgments  out  into  good  acts.  His  connection  with 
the  New  Humanism  is  important. 

References  :  A  good  description  of  the  Herbartian  psychology  is  given  in 
Schwegler,  History  of  Philosophy,  283-285.  Herbart's  own  account  of  his 
theories  of  method  is  best  had  from  his  Outlines  of  Educational  Doctrine. 
Good  secondary  accounts  are  to  be  found  in  Monroe,  Text  Book,  622-639; 
Parker,  375-429.     For  more  extended  bibliography  see  Parker,  429-430. 

4.  Froebel.  The  sociological  significance  of  Froebel  is  all  too 
frequently  lost  sight  of  in  the  metaphysical  haze  in  which  his 
educational  practices  were  enveloped.  Froebel  lived  in  the 
intellectual  atmosphere  of  German  romantic  philosophy.  If  one 
discredits  romantic  philosophy,  one  does  not  believe  in  the  meta- 
physical implications  of  Froebel's  practices.  Fortunately, 
romanticism  is  the  spiritual  forbear  of  evolutionism,  and  much 
of  the  emphasis  placed  by  Froebel  on  growth,  self-activity,  play 
and  socialization  is  in  accord  with  our  best  contemporary  thought. 
Froebel  saw,  with  Pestalozzi,  the  necessity  of  forming  a  new 
generation  of  men,  and  recognized  with  him  the  rights  of  the 
child.  In  order  to  accomplish  the  first-named  end,  the  child 
must  be  rescued  from  a  period  of  early  neglect  or  evil  influence 
and  given  the  proper  start.  Seen  from  another  angle,  this 
means  that  human  life  is  a  precious  something  which  may  not 
be  wasted  nor  malformed.  Froebel's  educational  objective  is 
the  improvement  of  the  human  social  order  through  the  enrich- 
ment of  human  individuality.  His  special  emphasis  upon  the 
early  years  of  childhood  is  only  a  corollary  of  his  main  theorem. 

Sources:   Froebel,  The  Education  of  Man. 

References:  Monroe,  Tex^  5oo^,  639-667;  Parker,  43 1-486 ;  MacVannel, 
The  Educational  Theories  of  Herbart  and  Froebel,  80-117.  For  more  extended 
bibliography  see  Parker,  484-486. 

V.   Political  Reaction  in  Europe  after  1815  and  Its  Effect 

ON  Education 

I.  England.  While  England's  political  institutions  during 
the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  up  to  1832  were  nomi- 
nally representative  and  democratic,  they  were  extremely  aristo- 
cratic and  unrepresentative.     It  has  been  estimated  that  1,500 

13 


persons  controlled  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons.  Not 
only  were  the  great  mass  of  people  without  voice  in  the  govern- 
ment, but  the  new  capitalistic  class  and  the  great  industrial  cities 
as  well  were  politically  unrecognized.  After  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  a  strong  tide  of  Tory  reaction  set  in.  This  influence  pre- 
vailed up  to  the  time  of  the  Franchise  Act  of  1832. 

References:  Hayes,  I,  430-440;  II,  28-37;  Hazen,^  Europe  since  1815, 
406-430. 

Educational  conditions  reflected  the  conservatism  of  political 
conditions.  Primary  education  was  left  entirely  to  private 
initiative  and  philanthropic  activity.  As  providing  educational 
opportunities  for  large  numbers  at  small  cost,  the  monitorial 
system  of  instruction  had  wide  development.  The  Liberal 
interest  in  the  education  of  the  people  and  the  efforts  of  Liberal 
leaders  to  secure  parliamentary  action  did  not  achieve  any 
success  until  1833. 

References:  Philanthropic  efforts  in  primary  education:  Birchenough, 
A  History  of  Elementary  Education  in  England,  1-61;  210-249;  Monroe, 
Text  Book,  724-727;   Graves,  49-75;    Parker,  226-236. 

Liberal  English  thought  and  parliamentary  activity  during  this  period 
are  described  in  Birchenough,  reference  given  above,  and  De  Montmorency, 
Progress  of  Education  in  England,  66-73. 

2.  France.  The  Restoration  government  was  essentially  a 
continuation  of  the  institutions  of  the  Empire.  Suffrage  was 
enjoyed  by  the  wealthier  citizens  and  the  government  was  con- 
stitutional. It  is  after  181 5  that  the  industrial  revolution  made 
itself  felt  in  France.  The  University  was  continued  without 
essential  change.  Primary  education  was  largely  neglected, 
although  gradual  improvement  took  place  up  to  1830.  The 
period  is  marked  by  philanthropic  and  religious  activity  in 
primary  education  and  the  use  of  the  monitorial  system  {instruc- 
tion mutuelle).  The  state  of  public  education  in  1833  is  shown 
in  the  report  of  Lorain  mentioned  below. 

Sources:  Lorain,  Tableau  de  V Instruction  Primaire  en  France;  translated 
extracts  from  same  in  Bryson  Library. 

References:  Political  and  economic  conditions:  Hayes,  II,  14-20; 
Robinson  and  Beard,  II,  1-6;  West,  406-411;  Hazen,  66-99.  Educational 
conditions:  Arnold,  Popular  Education  in  France,  41-48;  Simon,  V Instruction 
Populaire  en  France,  65-76;  Compayre,  History  of  Pedagogy,  513-519;  Greard, 
Education  et  Instruction,  35-64;  Farrington,  French  Secondary  Schools,  70-71. 

'  All  later  references  to  this  work  are  indicated  only  by  the  name  of  the  author. 

14 


3-  Germany.  The  nearest  approach  to  German  national  unity 
before  the  time  of  Bismarck  was  the  Federation  of  1815.  No 
change  toward  popular  representation  took  place  until  1848. 
The  feudal  restrictions  had  been  removed,  but  no  progress  was 
made  in  the  direction  of  democratic  representative  institutions. 
The  conditions  of  primary  and  secondary  education  during  this 
period  have  been  sufficiently  described  above.  (See  the  Regenera- 
tion of  Prussia).  During  this  period  university  freedom  was 
greatly  restricted. 

See  Carlsbad  Resolutions,  Robinson,  Readings  in  Modern  European  History, 

n,  547-550. 

References:  Political  conditions,  Robinson  and  Beard,  II,  12-17;  West, 
392-396;   Hayes,  II,  41-44;   Hazen,  28-44. 

VI.   Limited  Democracy  in  the  United  States  and  Half-way 

Measures  of  State  Intervention  in  Education, 

1789  TO  ABOUT  1828 

We  have  seen  that  the  first  steps  in  the  direction  of  democracy 
in  Europe  went  only  so  far  as  to  secure  political  representation 
for  the  wealthier  minority  of  the  population.  In  the  United  States  [1 
during  the  first  thirty  years  of  national  existence  the  same  atti- 
tude toward  the  mass  of  the  people  prevailed  and  property  re-  , 
strictions  upon  the  right  to  vote  were  the  rule.  The  same  dis- 
trust of  popular  sovereignty  was  shown  in  the  "filtration"  plan 
of  electorates.  The  conception  of  education  as  the  means  of 
forming  a  nation  had  not  been  realized.  Moderate  provisions  for 
elementary  education  had  been  made  in  most  states  of  the 
union  either  through  private  initiative  with  some  state  aid,  or 
through  the  parochial  plan  of  organization,  or  through  public 
support  and  control,  as  in  Massachusetts.  The  establishment 
of  "literary"  funds,  the  granting  of  state  subsidies,  the  setting 
aside  of  state  land  for  educational  uses,  the  formation  of  charity 
school  societies  and  systems  of  "pauper  schools"  were  all  half- 
way recognition  of  the  obligation  and  desirability  of  free,  uni- 
versal, public  education  and  paved  the  way  to  that  development. 
This  was  the  period  of  vogue  of  the  monitorial  system  in  the 
United  States. 

In  secondary  education,  the  academy  largely  displaced  the 
Latin  grammar  school  of  the  earlier  period. 

References:  Historical  background:  Wilson,  Epochs  of  American  History, 
Division  and  Reunion,  2-21;   Schouler,  History  of  the  United  States,  II,  235- 

15 


238;  III,  44~47>  507~53i-  General  educational  conditions:  Parker,  240-271; 
Graves,  78-119.  For  accounts  of  the  development  in  the  early  states  see 
articles  in  Cyclopedia  of  Education  on  education  in  the  various  states.  Acade- 
mies: See  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  article  "Academies,"  sub-topic,  "In  Amer- 
ica"; Brown,  The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools,  179-278;  Monroe,  Principles 
of  Secondary  Education,  54-63;  Inglis,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education, 
170-184. 

VII.  The  Industrial  Revolution 

The  industrial  revolution  was  caused  by  the  application  of 
steam-power  to  machinery.  "Its  two  basic  elements  were:  (i) 
the  invention  and  application  of  machines  and  engines  to  facili- 
tate mining,  manufacturing,  agriculture  and  transportation, 
(2)  the  building  of  factories."  The  industrial  revolution  had 
transformed  England  by  1825.  It  greatly  changed  conditions  in 
France  between  18 15  and  1830.  Its  influence  was  strongly  felt 
in  the  United  States  after  1830.  Germany  was  affected  by  it 
after  1840,  but  the  full  influence  of  the  movement  was  not  felt 
there  until  after  1870. 

The  immediate  social  effects  were  (a)  to  produce  a  new 
capitalistic  class  distinct  from  the  landowning  and  commercial 
aristocracy  of  the  eighteenth  century,  (b)  to  establish  a  hard 
and  fast  line  between  employer  and  employees,  (c)  to  bring  into 
existence  a  proletariat  which  could  scarcely  aspire  to  entrance 
into  the  class  of  capitalists,  (d)  to  increase  the  self-consciousness 
of  the  working  class,  leading  them  to  form  labor  unions  in  the 
interest  of  collective  bargaining  and  causing  them  to  aspire  for 
political  representation  so  as  to  be  able  to  improve  their  con- 
dition. 

The  political  changes  that  resulted  from  these  altered  social 
conditions  are  the  materials  for  a  political  history  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  and  are  the  principal  concern  of  contemporary 
domestic  politics,  (i)  The  first  political  effect  was  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  new  class  made  wealthy  through  manufacture.  This 
took  place  in  England  ifi  1832;  and  the  resulting  reorganization 
of  political  power  remained  in  force  until  1867.  This  is  the 
period  known  as  the  "Victorian  Compromise."  The  same  po- 
litical change  took  place  in  France  in  1830  and  may  be  said  to 
have  continued  with  ups  and  down  until  1870.  The  agitation  for 
popular  political  representation  and  constitutional  government 
resulted  in  a  short-lived  and  specious  success  in  Prussia  in  the 

16 


I'i 


Constitution  of  1848.  The  gains  of  1848  were  more  apparent 
than  real,  however,  as  the  constitutional  forms  gave  no  real 
representation  in  face  of  the  high-handed  and  repressive  tactics 
of  the  Government.  (2)  The  second  and  longer  delayed  political 
effect  in  Europe  was  the  admission  of  the  working  classes  to 
participation  in  government.  This  achievement  represented  the 
conclusion  of  the  "Victorian  Compromise"  in  England  in  1867. 
Further  extension  of  the  suffrage  occurred  in  1884  and  again  in 
1918.  Manhood  suffrage  was  achieved  in  France  in  1871,  but 
has  been  realized  in  Prussia,  representative  of  Germany  as  a 
whole,  only  at  the  present  time. 

The  industrial  revolution. may  be  seen  to  have  had  important 
bearings  on  the  development  of  primary  education,  for  with  the 
extension  of  the  suffrage  it  was  recognized  that  there  must  be 
more  adequate  provision  for  the  preparation  of  the  new  citizens 
for  the  duties  of  citizenship.  It  is  also  seen  that  the  application 
of  science  in  manufacture  and  the  need  for  modern  languages  for 
the  transaction  of  international  business  would  have  its  effect 
upon  the  curriculum  of  the  schools  intended  for  the  education  of 
the  commercial  classes.  This  influence  was  definitely  felt  about 
the  middle  of  the  century  in  the  three  European  countries  dis- 
cussed above.  The  new  needs  of  instruction  for  the  efficiency 
of  the  workmen  under  the  new  industrial  regime  resulted  in  the 
development  of  various  forms  of  vocational  education. 

References:  Robinson  and  Beard,  II,  30-52;  Hayes,  II,  67-97;  Cheyney, 
Social  and  Industrial  History  of  England,  199-239. 

VIII.  Modified  Democracy  in  England  (1832-1867)  and  the 

Beginnings  of  State  Intervention  in  Education 

(1833-1870) 

I.  The  period  was  one  marked  by  important  social  reforms. 
While  the  franchise  of  1832  included  only  the  well-to-do  classes, 
the  extension  of  the  suffrage  held  out  hope  for  its  further  exten- 
sion among  those  social  classes  as  yet  without  the  vote.  Agitation 
for  a  more  liberal  franchise  was  almost  continuous  until  it  was 
realized  in  the  Act  of  1867  and  carried  further  in  the  Act  of  1884. 
Conditions  of  factory  labor  were  greatly  ameliorated.  Slave 
labor  in  the  colonies  was  abolished.  The  Poor  Laws  were  re- 
formed. 

References:  Hayes,  II,  100-116;  Hazen,  439-464. 

17 


2.  Primary  Education.  During  this  period  we  have  the  be- 
ginnings of  state  intervention  in  education  in  England.  Educa- 
tion came  to  be  thought  of  as  a  poHtical  right  and  necessity  in- 
stead of  as  a  charity  to  be  extended  to  the  poor.  Beginning  with 
a  parHamentary  grant  of  £20,000  in  1833,  to  be  administered  by 
the  Treasury,  the  financial  aid  of  the  state  to  education  in- 
creased until  in  1861  it  amounted  to  £800,000.  The  state  worked 
through  existing  educational  societies  during  this  period.  The 
halfway  participation  of  the  state  was  due  not  so  much  to  the 
lack  of  interest  in  the  matter  of  education  as  to  the  irreconcilable 
differences  that  developed  in  regard  to  the  part  to  be  played  in 
the  schools  by  the  religious  bodies. 

Within  this  period  several  important  landmarks  may  be 
pointed  out.  In  1838,  a  report  was  made  by  a  Select  Committee 
on  the  Education  of  the  Poorer  Classes  which  showed  the  great 
need  of  education.  In  the  year  following,  a  Committee  of 
Council  on  Education  was  established.  The  policy  of  this 
committee  was  to  regulate  the  conditions  of  grant  in  the  interest 
of  better  school  facilities.  In  1846  the  pupil-teacher  system  was 
inaugurated  and  the  financial  conditions  of  the  teachers  were  im- 
proved. After  1847  extensive  supervision  was  exercised  over  all 
schools  receiving  state  aid  through  a  system  of  inspection.  In 
1856  an  Education  Department  was  formed.  The  Report  of  the 
Newcastle  Commission  in  1861  showed  that  more  needed  to  be 
done  for  the  improvement  of  educational  conditions.  The  answer 
of  the  government  was  the  Revised  Code  of  1861,  which  intro- 
duced a  system  of  payment  of  state  aid  by  results. 

It  is  during  this  period  that  the  influence  of  Pestalozzi  on 
school-room  practice  made  itself  felt  in  England. 

Sources:  Report  of  the  Newcastle  Commission,  1861;  Revised  Code  of 
1861,  Education  Department  Reports,  1861-1862,  pp.  XV-XLIV. 

References:  Birchenough,  History  of  Elementary  Education  in  England, 
62-128;  250-284;  De  Montmorency,  Progress  of  Education  in  England,  74-141; 
Sandiford,  Training  of  Teachers  in  England  and  Wales,  42-51;  Kay-Shuttle- 
worth,  Four  Periods  of  Public  Education;  Roberts,  Education  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  41-47. 

3.  Secondary  Education.  The  second  quarter  of  the  cen- 
tury saw  a  great  change  in  the  spirit  of  the  Public  Schools  under 
the  leadership  of  men  like  Thomas  Arnold  and  later,  Thring. 
However,  the  curriculum  was  hardly  modified  until  after  the 
reports  of  the  Great  Commissions  of  Clarendon  and  Taunton  in 

18 


1864  and  1867  respectively.  A  great  lack  of  vitality  in  existing 
secondary  schools  was  shown  by  these  reports  and  a  decided 
disparity  between  secondary  school  opportunities  and  social 
needs.  The  rich  were  provided  with  good  secondary  schools, 
but  the  great  middle  class  was  practically  without  the  means  of 
secondary  education.  Matthew  Arnold  conducted  a  persistent 
campaign  for  educational  opportunities  for  the  middle  class. 
Some  science  instruction  was  provided  through  the  activities  of 
the  Science  and  Art  Department,  established  in  1852  and  co- 
ordinated with  the  Education  Department  in  1856.  The  agita- 
tion for  increased  recognition  of  the  sciences  in  education  is  well 
shown  in  some  of  the  writings  of  Spencer  and  Huxley. 

Sources:  Report  of  Public  Schools  Commission,  1864;  Report  of  Schools 
Inquiry  Commission,  1867. 

References:  Rouse,  History  of  Rugby  School,  220-274;  Findlay,  Thomas 
Arnold,  44-121;  Roberts,  Education  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  59-66;  Arnold, 
Culture  and  Anarchy;  Spencer,  Education,  I;  Huxley,  Science  and  Education; 
Arnold,  Schools  and  Universities  on  the  Continent,  257-270. 

IX.  The  Upper-Middle-Class  Monarchy  in  France,  and 

THE    Establishment   of   a   State   System   of    Primary 

Schools,  i 830-1 848 

1.  The  Revolution  of  July,  1830,  was  in  support  of  middle 
class  political  privilege  and  constitutional  government  against 
the  attempts  at  usurpation  of  Charles  X.  There  was,  however, 
a  strong  liberal  tone  to  the  early  years  of  the  new  reign  which 
carried  through  important  educational  reforms.  The  failure  of 
the  people  at  large  to  secure  any  political  advantages  out  of  the 
Revolution  of  1830  caused  continual  agitation  on  their  part  and 
repressive  tactics  on  the  part  of  the  government.  Business  pros- 
perity was  the  guide  of  domestic  and  foreign  policy,  and  during 
these  eighteen  years  of  the  government  of  "big  business"  France 
grew  in  wealth.  The  conditions  of  the  working  classes  were  ex- 
tremely bad  and  their  efforts  to  secure  reform  were  met  by 
violence.  The  Revolution  of  1848  was  a  direct  effort  of  the  un- 
represented portions  of  the  population  to  secure  the  ballot. 

References:  West,  413-417;  Hayes,  II,  94-95,  1 16-123;  Hazen,  1 14-144. 

2.  Primary  Education.  The  "July  Monarchy"  established 
for  the  first  time  by  the  Law  of  1833  a  national  system  of  primary 
education  in  France.  What  had  formerly  been  optional  with  the 
communes  was  now  made  compulsory,  and  each  commune  was 

19 


made  to  provide  and  support,  with  departmental  and  state  aid 
where  necessary,  at  least  one  primary  school.  It  was  also  made 
obligatory  upon  chief  towns  of  departments  and  other  communes 
of  which  the  population  exceeded  six  thousand,  to  maintain  higher 
primary  schools  which  provided  an  extension  of  education,  not 
to  include  the  study  of  the  learned  languages.  The  teacher's 
minimum  salary  and  residence  were  to  be  provided  by  the  com- 
munes and  the  supplementation  of  this  minimum  was  to  take 
place  out  of  school  fees.  A  rigid  system  of  certification  was 
established  and  the  support  of  normal  schools  was  made  obliga- 
tory upon  departments.  The  actual  condition  of  teachers  was 
unsatisfactory  owing  to  the  loV  fixed  minimum  salary.  Poor 
children  were  to  receive  primary  schooling,  according  to  the  law, 
without  cost. 

Sources:  The  Law  of  1833,  translation,  Bryson  Library. 

References:  Arnold,  Popular  Education  in  France,  49-59;  Compayre, 
History  of  Pedagogy,  519-522;  Farrington,  Public  Primary  School  System  of 
France,  I47-I55- 

3.  Secondary  Education.  The  university  monopoly  of 
higher  education  was  continued  throughout  the  period  of  the 
July  Monarchy  but  was  overthrown  by  the  Revolution  of  1848. 
The  dominant  element  in  secondary  education  was  the  study  of 
the  classics,  but  the  curriculum  was  greatly  enriched  through  the 
addition  of  mathematics,  science,  modern  languages  and  history. 
.    References:  Farrington,  French  Secondary  Schools,  71-73. 

X.  The  Second  Republic  and  the  Second  Empire  in  France, 

1 848- 1 870,  AND  THE  Rejuvenescence  of  Church 

Influence  in  Education 

I .  Primary  Education.  The  radicalism  of  the  Parisian  work- 
ingmen  and  journalists,  which  brought  about  the  overthrow  of 
the  July  Monarchy,  was  greatly  modified  by  the  conservatism 
of  the  provinces.  France  was  not  in  favor  of  the  socialism  of  Le 
Blanc,  and  the  middle  class  soon  controlled  the  government. 
The  teachers  of  France  had  supported  the  radical  element  in  the 
revolution  of  1848  and  they  felt  the  disapproval  of  the  govern- 
ment when  a  general  reorganization  of  the  system  of  education 
was  contemplated  on  the  basis  of  a  report  of  a  general  commission 
(1849).  The  training  of  the  teachers  in  the  normal  schools  was 
condemned  as  being  too  ambitious  and  was  cut  down  in  1851 

20 


to  practically  the  curriculum  of  the  primary  schools.  The 
religious  congregations  engaged  in  teaching  were  shown  great 
favor.  Compare  with  the  change  in  Prussian  education  in  1854. 
(See  below.)  The  law  of  1850  created  a  strongly  centralized  sys- 
tem of  educational  organization.  Free  education  of  the  poor  was 
continued,  but  the  number  of  free  places  was  restricted.  Per- 
mission was  given  to  communes  to  establish  entirely  gratuitous 
schools.  This  practice  became  more  and  more  common  up  to 
1 88 1,  when  primary  instruction  was  made  free  to  all.  The 
higher  primary  schools  of  the  Law  of  1833  were  discontinued, 
but  an  extended  curriculum  was  made  optional  for  the  com- 
munal schools.  The  increased  liberalism  of  the  government 
after  i860  is  shown  in  greater  interest  in  the  normal  schools  and 
public  education. 

Sources:  The  Law  of  March  15,  1850,  translation,  Bryson  Library, 
The  Law  of  April  10,  1867,  translation,  Bryson  Library. 

References:  Political  and  Social  Developments:  West,  417-430;  Hayes, 
II,  150-163;  Hazen,  187-214;  272-301,  Educational  Developments:  Arnold, 
Popular  Education  in  France,  60-174;  Farrington,  Public  Primary  School 
System  of  France,  156-162, 

2.  Secondary  Education.  The  period  from  1830  to  1870  in 
France  was  one  of  great  economic  and  industrial  growth.  It  came 
to  be  felt  that  the  sciences,  which  were  so  important  in  commerce, 
were  not  receiving  the  attention  they  should  receive  in  secondary 
schools.  In  1852  the  curriculum  of  the  lycees  was  changed  by  the 
introduction  of  more  science.  The  student  was  given  a  choice 
between  a  continuation  for  the  upper  part  of  the  course  of  the 
study  of  classics,  and  a  program  of  scientific  studies.  The  latter 
program  was  the  natural  path  to  technical  studies  in  the  univer- 
sity. In  1864,  a  return  to  a  single  course  was  made,  but  the 
course  was  far  less  strictly  classical  than  before  the  change  of 
1852.  At  the  same  time  "special"  or  "modern"  secondary  instruc- 
tion which  stressed  scientific  studies,  was  developed  for  the  needs 
of  those  who  contemplated  technical  careers. 

References:  Farrington,  French  Secondary  Schools,  74-78, 

XI.   Mid-century  Reaction  in  Germany  and  Its  Effects 
ON  Public  Education,  i 840-1 870 

I .  The  disappointment  of  the  liberals  of  Prussia  over  the  failure 
to  secure  the  promised  constitutional  forms  of  government  after 
1 8 15,  caused  a  rigorous  agitation  for  more  liberal  political  insti- 

21 


tutions.  This  became  more  insistent  with  the  accession  of 
Frederick  WilHam  IV  in  1840  to  the  throne  of  Prussia.  The 
success  of  the  radical  elements  in  Paris  in  1848  called  out  a 
similar  demonstration  in  Berlin  with  the  result  that  a  constitu- 
tion was  granted  in  1850.  By  this  time  the  forces  of  conservatism 
and  reaction  had  regained  the  upper  hand  and  the  constitution 
granted,  while  liberal  in  form,  was  extremely  undemocratic  in 
reality.  For  details  see  references  given  below.  During  the 
years  following  the  accession  of  William  I  as  king  of  Prussia, 
through  his  minister  Bismarck,  the  autocratic  powers  of  the 
government  were  practically  unlimited. 

Nothing  was  done  during  this  period  for  democratic  liberties, 
but  much  was  done  for  the  formation  of  a  strong  German  state. 
The  spirit  of  nationalism  was  stronger  than  the  spirit  of  democ- 
racy in  Germany  and  through  ruthless  means  forged  a  strong 
empire  of  German-speaking  peoples. 

References:  West,  449-456;  466-478;  Robinson  and  Beard,  86-S9; 
109-123;   Hayes,  II,  123-144;    180-206;   Hazen,  145-152;    183-186;  240-271. 

2.  Primary  Education.  The  Prussian  government  believed 
that  the  political  disturbances  of  the  period  were  traceable  to  the 
too  ambitious  efforts  of  tl^e  seminaries  and  the  folk-schools. 
The  political  reaction  which  followed  the  events  of  1848  laid 
hands  upon  the  seminaries  and  limited  their  curricula  and  their 
activities  to  the  substance  of  primary  education.  A  very  specific 
and  limited  objective  was  prescribed  for  the  seminaries  and  for 
the  folk-schools.  The  religious  element  in  education  was  gre6.tly 
stressed. 

Sources:    The  Regulations  of  1854,  translation  in  part,  Bryson  Library. 

References:  Paulsen,  German  Education,  245-251;  Alexander,  Prussian 
Elementary  Schools,  39-43;  Kandel,  Training  of  Elementary  School  Teachers 
in  Germany,  13-15. 

3.  Secondary  Education.  The  repressive  policy  of  the  gov- 
ernment was  felt  in  the  attempt  to  narrow  the  curriculum  of  the 
Gymnasium  to  Latin  and  to  give  the  school  a  strong  religious 
tendency.  But  this  attempt  to  constrict  the  curriculum  of  the 
Gymnasium  only  revealed  more  clearly  the  strong  demand  for 
scientific  studies,  and  it  was  found  desirable  to  recognize  a 
semi-classical,  or  Realgymnasium,  in  the  Order  of  Studies  of 
1859.    The  scientific  tendency  in  secondary  education  received 

22 


further   recognition    in    the    First   Grade    Non-classical    School 
{Realschule  I.    Ordnung)  in  1859. 

References:  Paulsen,  German  Education,  205-206;  214-215;  Russell, 
German  Higher  Schools,  101-105;  Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  Gelehrten  Unterrichts, 
671-755- 

XII.  The  Triumph  of  Democracy  in  American  Political  Life 
AND  State  Control  and  Support  in  Education 

1 .  Democracy  modified  by  property  or  other  qualifications  for 
the  suffrage  gave  way  in  general  during  the  second  and  third 
decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  favor  of  manhood  suffrage. 
The  new  influence  was  felt  in  political  and  economic  policies  and 
found  a  very  definite  response  in  educational  concerns. 

References:  Wilson,  Epoch  Series,  Division  and  Reunion,  1 02-1 15;  John- 
son, Union  and  Democracy,  298-316. 

2.  The  Development  of  Free  State  School  Systems  was 
stimulated  by  the  common  school  revival  in  New  England. 
Under  the  leadership  of  Carter,  Mann,  and  Barnard,  the  schools 
of  the  New  England  states  were  greatly  improved.  More  money 
was  expended  on  the  schools;  better  buildings  and  equipment 
were  provided;  better  salaries  were  paid  to  teachers;  better 
preparation  was  exacted  of  them  and  normal  training  facilities 
were  provided ;  the  curriculum  was  expanded  and  better  methods 
were  introduced  following  the  practices  of  Pestalozzi.  The  im- 
provement in  the  common  schools  at  this  time  is  traceable  to  the 
continental  example,  particularly  of  Prussia.  The  movement  for 
school  improvement  spread  from  the  New  England  states  over 
the  entire  union  and  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  free  state 
systems  everywhere. 

References:  Monroe,  Text  Book,  734-739".  Graves,  165-189;  256-273; 
Parker,  256-271. 

For  developments  in  separate  states  see  articles  in  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 
See  Cyclopedia  of  Education  on  the  development  of  compulsory  attendance 
and  the  progress  in  methods  of  training  of  teachers.  The  influence  of  Pesta- 
lozzi, Herbart,  and  Froebel,  as  it  developed  in  this  country,  may  be  seen  in 
the  accounts  of  these  men  in  Monroe,  Graves,  and  Parker. 

3.  The  Development  of  the  American  High  School.  The 
democratic  change  in  American  political  life  carried  with  it 
agitation  for  free  education  of  a  grade  beyond  the  elementary 
school.  The  response  to  this  demand  was  the  American  high 
school,  with  free  tuition  and  a  relatively  advanced  curriculum. 

23 


While  not  as  ambitious  in  curriculum  as  the  European  secondary 
schools,  it  represented  the  American  intention  of  providing  free 
higher  schooling.  In  conjunction  with  free  tuition  in  the  state 
universities,  American  practice  is  a  literal  fulfilment  of  Con- 
dorcet's  plan  for  free  instruction  in  all  grades  of  lower  and 
higher  schools  and  universities. 

References:  Monroe,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  60-68;  Brown, 
The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools,  297-321;  347-368;  Inglis,  The  Rise  of  the 
High  School  in  Massachusetts;   Inglis,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  184- 


XIII.     The  German  Empire,   1870-1918:    A  Dynastic  and 

Military  Regime  in  Full  Control  of  Highly 

Developed  Agencies  of  Education 

I.  The  successful  wars  of  1864,  1866,  and  1 870-1 871  led 
the  German  people  to  accept  national  success  in  place  of  demo- 
cratic institutions.  Under  the  control  and  guidance  of  a  highly 
efficient  central  administration,  Germany  began  after  1870  an 
economic  and  industrial  development  unsurpassed,  even  un- 
equalled, by  any  country  in  Europe  for  a  similar  period.  Govern- 
ment subsidies  aided  the  growth  of  industries  and  public  utilities. 
Government  pensions  and  various  measures  in  the  interest  of  the 
workingman  enabled  the  government  to  secure  the  allegiance  of 
the  laboring  class.  In  connection  with  the  phase  of  national 
character  shown  in  the  new  industrial  regime,  one  must  have  in 
mind  the  fact  that  the  greater  portion  of  Prussia,  which  was  the 
controlling  force  in  the  Empire,  is  made  up  of  large  agricultural 
estates  which  reproduce  with  little  change  all  the  characteristics 
of  medieval  feudalism.  The  political  conservatism  of  feudal 
Prussia  has  acted  as  a  check  upon  the  democratic  tendencies  of 
industrial  Prussia  and  thus  upon  the  more  liberal  south  German 
states,  such  as  Bavaria.  Dynastic  and  nationalistic  ambition 
combined  with  commercial  needs  has  fostered  the  spirit  in 
Germany  which  led  her  to  carry  war  upon  the  rest  of  Europe  in 
1914.  With  the  collapse  of  her  military  power,  the  democratic 
forces  which  in  other  countries  have  accompanied  the  industrial 
revolution  seem  to  have  asserted  themselves. 

References:  Hazen,  303-328;  Hayes,  II,  397-426;  Veblen,  Imperial 
Germany  and  the  Industrial  Revolution,  145-270;  Robinson  and  Beard,  II, 
130-150;  West,  478-494. 

24 


2.  Primary  Education.  The  new  regulations  for  seminaries 
and  folk  schools  in  1872  reveal  a  new  tendency  in  German  ele- 
mentary education.  The  reactionary  policy  of  1 840-1 872  had 
been  based  upon  fear  of  a  broad  and  generous  curriculum  and 
had  attempted  to  limit  severely  the  materials  of  instruction. 
After  1872,  the  Government  reestablished  a  rich  curHculum  in 
both  elementary  schools  and  seminaries.  The  emphasis  remained 
strongly  dynastic  and  nationalistic.  The  primary  schools  were 
intended  for  the  highest  possible  intellectual,  economic  and  social 
development  of  an  unprivileged  political  class  that  was  consistent 
with  the  continuation  of  the  existing  political  arrangement. 
Loyalty  to  the  crown,  love  for  the  fatherland,  suspicion  and  fear 
of  hereditary  national  enemies,  belief  in  German  institutions  and 
culture,  were  made  positive  and  specific  objects  of  instruction. 
The  Government  could  provide  a  relatively  rich  type  of  instruc- 
tion because  it  thoroughly  controlled  the  entire  social  situation 
and  made  the  primary  schools  minister  to  the  perpetuation  of  the 
existing  order  of  things.  The  extensive  development  of  forms  of 
vocational  education  to  serve  as  a  completion  of  primary  educa- 
tion and  to  provide  an  advantageous  entry  of  the  boy  upon  a 
vocation,  is  further  evidence  of  the  far-sighted  adaptation  of 
educational  means  to  ends  which  the  Empire  achieved. 

Sources:  The  Regulations  of  October  15,  1872,  English  Special  Reports, 
I,  470-480;  Alexander,  The  Prussian  Elementary  Schools,  43-52;  Perry, 
German  Elementary  Education,  94-116;    194-213. 

References:  Russell,  "Education  for  Citizenship,"  Teachers  College  Record, 
March,  1916;  Paulsen,  German  Education,  251-261;  Alexander,  The  Prussian 
Elementary  Schools,  324-348;  392-451 ;  Scott,  Patriots  in  the  Making,  155-192; 
Kandel,  Training  of  Elementary  School  Teachers  in  Germany,  15-18. 

3.  Secondary  Education.  The  chief  development  of  the 
secondary  schools  under  the  Empire  was  in  the  direction  of  better 
adaptation  of  the  curriculum  to  modern  German  needs.  Secon- 
dary education  remains  in  Germany,  as  it  has  always  been,  the 
privilege  of  the  well-to-do,  and  is  closely  related  to  entrance  into 
professional  and  ofificial  life.  The  Berlin  Conference  of  1 890  and  the 
young  Emperor  William  the  Second's  address  on  that  occasion 
are  indicative  of  the  efforts  to  secure  a  type  of  secondary  educa- 
tion that  would  further  nationalistic  aims  and  serve  as  a  con- 
servative social  force.  The  changes  introduced  into  secondary 
education  by  the  Reform  of  1901  placed  the  classical,  semi- 
classical  and  non-classical  schools  on  an  equal  footing.     The 

25 


present  progressive  thought  on  German  education  looks  to  the 
establishment  of  a  connection  between  primary  and  secondary 
schools  so  as  to  break  down  the  caste  system. 

Sources:  "The  German  Emperor's  Address  at  the  BerHn  School  Confer- 
ence of  1890,"  Educational  Review,  I,  200-208;  Report  of  United  States  Com- 
missioner of  .Education,  1890,  I,  359-363. 

References,  Russell,  German  Higher  Schools,  105-107,  1 21-137,  227-244, 
291-31 1 ;    Fauhen,  German  Education,  206-211  ]   215-232. 

XIV.  The  Third  Republic  in  France  and  the  Achievement 

OF  A  Complete  National  and  Democratic  System 

OF  Education,  1870 

1.  The  Franco- Prussian  War  resulted  in  the  sudden  and 
complete  defeat  of  France.  The  conquerors  compelled  the 
cession  to  Germany  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine  and  laid  an  indemnity 
upon  France  of  $1,000,000,000.  For  a  number  of  years  a  dead- 
lock ensued  between  the  various  parties  over  the  form  of  govern- 
ment which  was  to  be  set  up.  In  1875  a  compromise  constitution 
was  established  which  was  democratic  in  form  and  spirit,  but  it 
was  only  in  1879  that  acute  danger  from  a  monarchist  reaction 
was  past.  Following  that  time  a  succession  of  constructive  laws 
increased  the  democratic  nature  of  French  institutions.  The 
strong  sympathy  of  the  Church  for  a  monarchistic  government 
brought  down  upon  it  the  opposition  of  the  Republicans.  This 
opposition  is  clearly  shown  in  the  educational  legislation  of  the 
eighties.  The  religious  question  was  again  brought  up  by  the 
Dreyfus  affair  and  further  radical  action  was  taken  against  the 
Church  by  the  Government  in  the  first  decade  of  the  new  century 
in  the  abolition  of  the  Concordat  and  the  suppression  of  teaching 
congregations. 

References:  West,  430-447;  Robinson  and  Beard,  151-179; '  Hayes,  II, 
331-367;    Hazen,  329-375- 

2.  Primary  Education.  A  universal  system  of  free  primary 
schools  was  established  by  the  law  of  June  6,  1881.  At  the  same 
time  all  religious  teaching  was  forbidden  in  the  schools.  The  place 
of  instruction  in  religion,  which  had  been  universal  in  French 
primary  schools  throughout  the  century,  was  taken  by  regular 
instruction  in  morality  and  civics.  Compulsory  attendance  was 
enacted  in  1882.  The  present  organic  law  of  French  primary 
education  was  passed  in  1886  and  it  provided  not  only  for 
laicity  of  instruction,  but  for  laicity  of  teaching  personnel  also. 

26 


Thereafter  no  religious  was  to  be  allowed  to  be  a  teacher  in  a 
French  public  primary  school.  However,  with  certain  restrictions 
of  government  supervision,  private  elementary  schools  were 
allowed.  These  were  mainly  in  the  hands  of  teaching  congrega- 
tions of  men  and  women.  It  was  in  1904  that  all  teaching 
congregations  were  suppressed  by  law.  France  has  provided  a 
general  system  of  industrial  training  connecting  with  the  last 
years  of  the  primary  schools.  The  higher  primary  schools  and 
cours  complementaires  offer  higher  educational  opportunities  to 
those  who  are  unable  to  attend  secondary  schools. 

In  France,  as  in  Germany,  the  curriculum  of  the  lower  schools 
has  had  a  strong  nationalistic  bent. 

Sources:  Laws  of  June  6,  1881,  March  28,  1882,  October  30,  1886,  and 
July  17,  1904.  Translation  of  extracts  from  these  laws  may  be  had  in  Bryson 
Library. 

References:  Good  extended  account  in  Farrington,  The  Public  Primary 
School  System  of  France;  article,  "France,  Education  in,"  Cyclopedia  of  Edu- 
cation;  Scott,  Patriots  in  the  Making,  3-154. 

3.  Secondary  Education.  Under  the  Third  Republic,  the 
French  tradition  of  centralization  of  control  and  uniformity  of 
practice  has  been  worked  out  in  the  sphere  of  secondary  educa- 
tion. By  a  reorganization  of  1902,  the  modern  side  of  secondary 
instruction  received  equal  rank  with  the  classical,  but  the 
curriculum  of  secondary  education  remains  in  general  strongly 
classical  in  France.  The  secondary  schools  of  France  are  in- 
tended for  the  upper  economic  classes  and  are  mainly  attended 
by  the  youth  of  those  classes. 

Reference:  Farrington,  French  Secondary  Schools,  78-83;  84-102. 

XV.   English  Democracy  and  Educational  Developments 

SINCE  1867 

I.  The  Reform  Acts  of  1867  and  1884  practically,  though 
not  perfectly,  achieved  universal  manhood  suffrage  in  Great 
Britain.  The  Act  of  1885  corrected  some  of  the  inequalities  of 
representation  in  Commons.  The  democratic  tendency  shown  in 
these  acts  of  Parliament  is  further  exhibited  in  factory  and  mine 
acts  for  the  protection  of  workers  in  industry  and  for  the  elimina- 
tion of  early-childhood  labor.  The  Boer  War  (1899-1902)  was 
influential  in  putting  new  life  into  the  Liberal  party  and  providing 
it  with  a  broad  humanitarian  program.     From  1906,  a  Liberal 

27 


coalition  was  continuously  in  power  until  the  outbreak  of  the 
Great  War.  It  has  put  through  a  great  deal  of  democratic  and 
humanitarian  legislation  including  a  graduated  income  tax,  an 
inheritance  tax,  luxury  taxes,  a  minimum  wage  for  miners,  work- 
men's compensation,  old  age  pensions,  national  insurance  and 
additional  legal  rights  for  trade  unions.  The  important  educa- 
tional changes  that  are  representative  of  the  same  spirit  will  be 
taken  up  below.  It  may  be  said  that  Great  Britain  is  to-day  in 
the  midst  of  profound  social  changes  as  indicated  by  the  Fran- 
chise Act  of  19 1 8,  and  the  Fisher  Education  Act  of  191 8. 

References:  Hayes,  II,  277-319;  Hazen,  497-597;  "Program  of  the 
British  Labor  Party,"  supplement  to  New  Republic,  February  16,  19 18. 

2.  Primary  Education.  The  extension  of  the  suffrage  by  the 
Act  of  1867  immediately  brought  up  the  question  of  better  edu- 
cation for  the  newly  enfranchised  voters.  Investigations  showed 
the  altogether  inadequate  provision  for  public  education  made  by 
the  existing  system.  A  new  act,  that  of  1870,  continued  the 
grants  to  the  voluntary  school  associations  and  set  up  alongside 
of  the  voluntary  schools  a  system  of  Board  schools,  supported 
out  of  public  taxes  and  administered  by  ad  hoc  elective  bodies. 
The  increasing  cost  of  education  and  the  superior  resources  of 
the  tax-supported  schools  showed  in  the  course  of  time  the  ina- 
bility of  the  voluntary  system  to  maintain  itself.  In  1902  the 
state  assumed  full  control  of  public  education  by  abolishing  the 
school  boards  and  school  attendance  committees  and  placing  both 
voluntary  and  rate-aided  schools  under  the  local  education 
authorities.  County  and  county-borough  councils  were  made  the 
local  education  authorities  for  elementary  and  higher  education, 
and  councils  of  non-county  boroughs  and  urban  districts  of  a 
given  population  were  made  the  local  authorities  for  elemen- 
tary education.  Free  elementary  schooling  was  practically 
achieved  in  1891.  Successive  acts  in  1876,  1880,  and  1893  were 
designed  to  improve  attendance.  In  1899  a  central  Board  of 
Education  was  provided.  The  "New  Liberalism"  is  reflected  in 
the  Act  of  1906  allowing  local  authorities  to  levy  a  rate  for  the 
provision  of  free  meals  to  indigent  children;  in  the  Act  of  1907 
providing  medical  examinations  and  vacation  schools  and  play 
centers;  and  in  the  Children  Act  of  1908,  putting  greater  responsi- 
bility upon  the  local  authorities  in  regard  to  school  attendance 
and  children  in  reformatory  institutions.    The  highest  educational 

28 


achievement  of  all  is  the  Fisher  Act,  191 8,  which  has  established 
a  truly  national  system  of  democratic  education. 

Sources:  The  Act  of  1870,  Education  Department  Reports,  1 870-1 871,  pp. 
XXI-LII;  the  Act  of  1902,  Drury's  Manual  of  Education,  161-206,  or  Barlow 
and  Macan,  The  Education  Act  of  IQ02,  96-161;  the  Act  of  1918,  Administra- 
tion Seminar. 

References:  Birchenough,  History  of  Elementary  Education  in  England, 
129-209;  285-373;  De  Montmorency,  Progress  of  Education  in  England, 
142-202;  Jackson,  Outlines  of  Education  in  England,  52-90;  Kandel,  "Educa- 
tional Progress  in  England,"  Educational  Review,  December,  19 18. 

3.  Secondary  Education.  The  establishment  of  a  public 
system  of  secondary  schools  in  England  was  not  legally  possible 
before  the  Act  of  1902  which  gave  county  and  county-borough 
councils  the  right  to  set  up  secondary  schools.  Conditions  in  the 
private  secondary  school  foundations  had  been  greatly  improved 
by  the  Endowed  Schools  Acts  (i  869-1 874).  The  Department 
of  Science  and  Art  had  been  giving  aid  to  schools  and  classes  for 
the  teaching  of  scientific  and  technological  subjects,  thus  foster- 
ing some  instruction  of  secondary  grade.  Liberal  definition  of 
"technical  instruction"  enabled  the  Science  and  Art  Department 
to  apply  large  funds  granted  by  the  Technical  Instruction  Act 
(1889)  and  the  Local  Taxation  Act  (1890)  to  the  teaching  of  all 
subjects  except  the  classics.  Further  provision  of  secondary 
instruction  was  made  by  school  boards  out  of  local  rates  until 
1901,  when  it  was  judged  to  be  illegal  in  the.Cockerton  Case. 
By  the  Act  of  1902,  local  authorities  were  given  power  to  supply 
the  existing  deficiencies  of  secondary  instruction  and  to  co- 
ordinate the  existing  factilities.  Great  Britain  has  not  adopted 
the  principle  of  universally  free  secondary  education,  but  has 
endeavored  to  eliminate  inequalities  of  birth  and  wealth,  as  far 
as  they  affect  secondary  school  attendance,  by  the  system  of 
scholarships. 

Sources:  Act  of  1902,  see  above;  Act  of  191 8,  see  above;  Report  of  the 
Bryce  Commission,  1894-1895. 

References:  Jackson,  Outlines  of  English  Education,  91-124;  Roberts, 
Education  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  67-81;  Monroe,  Principles  of  Secondary 
Education,  122-141. 


29 


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